Misleading statements of the World Animal Protection’s report ‘Behind the smile’

In October 2019 the World Animal Protection published the report “Behind the smile: the multi-billion dollar dolphin entertainment industry” promoting the end of the dolphin industry. The central argument to request the closing of all the dolphin venues is that the dolphins suffer in dolphinaria, but the report does not give any scientific prove to support this accusation. In failing to support its central accusation the conclusions and requests of the whole report can be considered invalid.

The report uses misleading statements, like for example “Throughout the world cetaceans – dolphins, whales and porpoises – are being taken from the wild or bred in captivity to be used for entertainment in tourism venues”. This statement is misleading especially when talking about European dolphinaria. The majority (over 75%) of the dolphins living in the parks of the European Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM) have been born under human care[1]. The remaining animals are founder stock that may have been acquired as long ago as the 1960’s. No EAAM Park has imported a dolphin from the wild since 2003.

EAAM institutions are successfully increasing the dolphin population in human care through breeding and cooperative exchanges. However, the importation of dolphins from the wild is not prohibited. CITES permits the import/export of bottlenose dolphins, including wild dolphins, where the exporting government finds that the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. The European Union imposes stricter measures for all cetaceans, however, importation is permitted for non-commercial purposes including research, education and breeding purposes for which conservation benefits will accrue to the species concerned.

The report also states that “From their traumatic capture from the wild to being bred for confinement in grossly inadequate conditions, dolphins and other cetaceans suffer immensely in captivity” which is absolutely false, as the vast majority of dolphins under human care have been born in dolphinaria, and they haven’t had any experience in the sea. The report does not present any scientific evidence to support this statement.

Other of the arguments in the report says that “Keeping dolphins in captivity for entertainment offers no genuine benefit to conservation and scant educational benefits” The shows with dolphins and orcas introduce educational elements, even though not all contents are for educational purposes, and are carried out to capture the attention of a public that has no or little previous knowledge of animals. The main aim of the shows is to awaken empathy in ways that build a bond between species and visitors.

The report has a specific chapter titled “Dolphin suffering for entertainment”, where one would expect to find all the arguments supporting the idea that dolphins suffer just because they are in captivity. But the fact is that that the chapter is just a collection of speculations without any scientific background.

For example, this chapter states “In the wild, species such as bottlenose dolphins often have home ranges exceeding 100 square km², though ranges vary greatly. Some populations have average home ranges in excess of 400 square km³”. The authors seem to believe that cetaceans swim hundreds of miles because they have a physiological need to do so, but this is not the case they only do it forced by the need to get food. If they are able to find food in a small, shallow area, they remain in the same place and stop doing deep dives for long periods. This has been proven with killer whales tracked with satellite tags in Gibraltar Strait, where the animals have plenty of food in a small area, and they did not travel more than 10 miles per day[2]^,[3].

This argument seems to make us believe that cetaceans swim 100 miles a day for fun, and if the only swim 50, they will be half as happy. If a dolphin can find food by swimming 50 miles in one day instead of swimming 100, it is not known whether or not it will be half as happy, but certainly it will have expended half the energy. That energy can be invested into the survival of their offspring.

The report also mentions the maximum diving capacity recorded in a dolphin, and states “When the natural ranges of wild dolphins are compared to the miniscule spaces afforded to them in captivity, it’s clear that it is impossible to provide adequate conditions”. In zoological settings, the depth dimensions of habitats for bottlenose dolphins reflect those of the bays and estuaries in which they typically are found. Dives of bottlenose dolphins typically last from 20 to 40 seconds. The depth of dives depends on the habitat in which the dolphins are found.

Bottlenose dolphins are generally found in bays, in tidal waters, and along open ocean beaches, often at depths of 3 meters or less. While dolphins can dive longer and deeper where motivated by the need to forage or to protect themselves from predators, they do not necessarily need to do so when these factors are absent[4]^,[5]. Moreover, the depth of pools is only one of the many factors that can influence, but not by itself determine, the well-being of dolphins. Regarding other species, like orcas, when they have the opportunity to feed a few tens of meters, they do not dive deeper for pleasure. Data obtained from markers with depth sensors show that they only make deep dives to catch their prey, and the rest of the dives are shallower than 20 m.[6]

Regarding the water quatily, the report by World Animal Protection suggests “Water treatment methods such as ozonation and chlorination are used in the dolphins’ tanks. These maintain the water clarity needed for visitors to see the animals clearly and neutralize the bacteria from large quantities of animal waste products. The use of harsh chemicals like these can cause an array of health issues, particularly of the eyes and skin”. This statement is again pure speculation unsupported by scientific data. The products that are used to reduce the proliferation of bacteria in the water (like chlorine and ozone), if used properly, have no bearing on the animals. If chlorine is extracted from the seawater itself (using for example eclocid machines as in Loro Parque) the chlorine comes from natural seawater and there is no need to add chemicals to purify water. Wild dolphins are exposed to pathogens that can cause different skin conditions, much more dramatic and painful that any skin lesion found in a dolphinarium. If the skin and eye problems would be so frequent in dolphinariums, after visiting hundreds of them worldwide the report should have pictures to illustrate the argument. But there is no a single picture of health issues found in dolphins under human care, which clearly demonstrates that the whole argument is false.

The report includes a statement about the negative effects of noise pollution in the dolpinariums, arguing “Stress caused by noise pollution is a concern for captive dolphins. Often, their tanks are located near sources of loud noise, such as loudspeakers which blast out music during performances.” This statement is also false. The sound from the music is mainly reflected by the water surface and it has been demonstrated that their impact underwater is negligible[7]. In fact the available scientific evidence also demonstrates that, when properly isolated, the noise from the pumps does not reach the pools. The most recently published scientific research [8] comparing the underwater noise pollution of 14 dolphinariums in USA proves that measurements of noise in cetacean pools show noise levels comparable to that found in the sea under normal conditions (with low human disturbance). The noise is much higher in sea areas where human activity is intense, and in fact alterations in dolphin, orca and beluga vocal behaviour associated with noisy human activities like whale watching, have been described.[9]^,[10], [11]^, [12]

The report presents a detailed explanation about the intelligence of the dolphins including details about the use of signature whistles (described and confirmed thanks to the zoo housed dolphins), the potential information transmission using sounds (demonstrated in many other species like for example birds, bats, frogs crickets, etc.), are capable to plan events (also shown in other species like birds) and also are capable of self recognition in the mirror. The authors highlight this question explaining that it occurs even before than in human children, but fail to add that this very same mirror self recognition has been proven also in other species, for example magpies or even ants !!! Hence, the neurologists do not agree that the intelligence of a dolphin can be comparable with a human being just because they pass the mirror test. Other ways, they should admit that magpies or ants are also as clever as three year old children. The goal of this detailed description on the intelligence of the dolphins has a clear motivation, support the argument that “The high level of intelligence demonstrated by bottlenose dolphins and other cetacean species makes their confinement and use for entertainment highly unethical”. But this statement is undermined by the fact that many other species like frogs, crickets, parrots, magpies or ants have passed the very same cognition tests. On the other hand, there is a debate among the welfare experts about the influence of the “intelligence” in the adaptation to zoo settings. Some experts sustain that a high cognitive level could be a positive factor regarding the adaptation to captivity. At this moment there is no scientific evidence to support none of the two hypothesis.

Regarding the stress produced by the behavioral restriction of the cetaceans the report states “Kept in tiny, featureless concrete tanks, dolphins are denied freedom of movement and the ability to carry out natural behaviors.” This affirmation is not totally correct, as the dolphins can express many natural behaviors (like swimming, copulating, giving birth, taking care and feeding calves, echolocating, whistling, etc.). There is a strong consensus in the animal welfare community that the animals do not need to express their complete behavioral repertoire to be in good welfare status. Being attacked by a predator, running away from threats or being killed by another dolphin are natural behaviors that are clearly not necessary to reach a good welfare status. Thus, it is clear that not all the behaviors are related with welfare, but only some essential ones. How this essential behaviors relate with welfare should be supported by proper ethological observations based on the scientific method, not in unfounded speculations.

The report also states “Group sizes in captive facilities usually consist of two to four dolphins per tank only. This is much smaller than average pod sizes in the wild and it likely impacts their social behavior.” This is a very vague statement, specially considering the fact that the authors include a list of facilities visited with the number of dolphins held. Anybody can check that only 28% of the facilities house 4 or less dolphins. That means 72% of the facilities have bigger groups, which clearly contradicts their own statement. If the majority of facilities have groups bigger than 5 animals the social behavior should not be compromised. The authors state in the report “Our research identified 233 dolphin venues keeping 1,770 dolphins”, if the average number of dolphins per venue is calculated the value is 7.6, which contradicts their assertion that group sizes usually consist of two to four dolphins.

Regarding the aggression related stress the report makes a curios statement “Dolphins rake each other in the wild as part of determining social hierarchy; however, in most mammals, once dominance hierarchies are established, they remain relatively stable, reducing repeated aggression.” This is not supported by scientific evidence, on the contrary is well known that dolphins live in a fission-fussion society where hierarchy changes and is constantly challenged. Rake marks in dolphins are fairly common, it has been calculated that over 60% of individuals have them [13] (the remaining 40% are usually young individuals). This is so common that has been used by some researchers to identify specimens or even to evaluate differential aggression by gender[14]^,[15].

The authors also report that “Injuries from teeth raking in captivity have been fatal at times”, but fail to explain that it only happened once in the 80s and never after. While an open wound can be an entry for pathogens into the bloodstream of cetaceans, this is only dangerous in contaminated waters. The daily hygienic control of the water in dolphinaria (in Spain the water quality in dolphinaria is controlled 50 times more than pool water for human use) makes this risk negligible. The cause of the death of the dolphin was an infection by Clostridium perfringens, the presence of this pathogenic bacteria is regularly monitored since 1978[16].

The report also emphasizes the fact that “the notion of captive dolphin venues being of value to wild dolphin populations, however, is misleading” because bottlenose dolphin are not endangered. And “No zoos or aquaria currently engage in captive breeding programmes designed to increase wild cetacean populations”. Obviously zoos and aquaria do not release bottlenose dolphins because it would be against the regulations of the International Union for Nature Conservation, as it would put in risk the wild populations of dolphins. Nevertheless, the breeding of bottlenose dolphins or even killer whales under human care provides knowledge and expertise that will be necessary to save the critically endangered cetacean species in the next decades. The vaquita, a critically endangered porpoise species, is the best example of how important is this knowledge and expertise. When the last desperate attempt to establish a breeding group to save the species was made, the experts involved were zoo and aquarium staff. Unfortunately it was too late for the vaquita, but the survival of next critically endangered cetaceans will depend mainly in that expertise gained with dolphins.

Regarding the scientific research, the report claims that “dolphin entertainment venues tend to focus on issues which serve to address problems in their industry rather than on conservation or animal welfare”, which is totally false. Just as an example the Annex I includes 324 scientific publications produced from research developed with cetaceans under human care by members of the European Association for Aquatic Mammals.

The authors also mention “the behavioral research, in particular, is questionable with captive subjects due to the constraints put on cetaceans such as small tank sizes and artificial social groupings. These constraints limit their natural behavior and lead to biases in research studies.” Which is absolutely non-sense, the experimental designs are done by researchers from different universities worldwide, and the results are published in peer reviewed journals, which is a prove of scientific quality.

Regarding the comparative health of wild and captive dolphins the authors claim: “when comparing the health of wild and captive dolphins, studies haveshown clear differences. Free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Florida appear to have a lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance when compared to their captive counterparts” which is a clear case of “cherry picking” using only the scientific results that support their pre-conceptions. Hence, the authors fail to include other scientific papers produced by the same research team comparing the very same dolphin groups and that have conclusions that do not support the idea of the better welfare of the wild dolphins. In fact the most recent scientific evidence demonstrates that the immune system of wild dolphins from a coastal population shows clear signs of health stress compared to a group of animals housed on a certified zoo[17]. This is the scientific evidence that the wild dolphins suffer more illness and pathologies than the ones under human care, as it can be expected just by the fact that the dolphinaria have professional veterinary services to take care of the animal health.

The report also has claims about the diet of the cetaceans under human care, which is on the opinion of the authors the cause of the “the health issues of captive dolphins” which often consists of “a limited diet of frozen-thawed fish in a few large meals”. In the opinion of the authors: “Their wild counterparts, however, were found to consume small portions of varied fish species when necessary.” This is an idealized concept of the wild, as the wild dolphins do not consume fish when necessary, but only when they have the chance to capture them. That means in some moments of the day they can consume a lot of fish and maybe starve for several days when conditions are not optimum. Trying to copy this feeding regime does not seem reasonable nor positive for the welfare of the dolphins.

Regarding the quality of the food the authors state “frozen then thawed fish is the main component of captive cetacean diets, but such fish are lower in nutritional value than live fish” which is a clear exaggeration. The nutritional difference of fresh and frozen fish is really subtle, just a small reduction in some vitamins that can be easily supplemented. It is obvious that wild dolphins do not have to receive supplements, but in consuming fresh fish they are exposed to parasites that are absent in frozen fish. The parasite infestation is quite common in wild animals and produces a wide variety of pathologies and enormous suffering. It seems reasonable to save this suffering to the dolphins under human care if the only odd is a vitamin supplement.

Another old fashioned argument that can be found in the report is the dental damage: “Bored and frustrated by their captivity, cetaceans persistently grind their teeth against the concrete of their tanks, or bite down on metal bars between tanks, breaking their teeth. This pattern of repetitive abnormal behavior – a stereotypy – leads to teeth breaking and wearing down to the gums. It is not seen in wild cetaceans.” This statement is totally false. There are many documented cases of dental damage in the wild for different reasons (abrasive food, manipulation of abrasive objects, etc.) there is not a single scientific study that relates dental damage in cetaceans and boredom. In cetaceans teeth typically have extremely limited function in food processing, so how can a broken teeth compromise the welfare of an animal? If the broken tooth does not produce any pain, inflammation or infection, there will not be significative effect in the welfare of the animal. Besides, it is not true that these lesions are not seen in wild cetaceans. The teeth wear is not an exclusive problem of captive killer whales or dolphins, there are many examples of wild killer whales with their tooth worn to the gum[18]^,[19]. While orca’s teeth in captivity are often damaged, strict veterinary control and daily dental hygiene prevent inflammation, infections and pain. In the case of wild orcas, there is no way to control inflammation and infection, and presumably this produces a painful process in the wild killer whales.

The report is full of contradictions, but when talking about the longevity and mortality rates is when it reaches its maximum levels of dishonesty. The authors recognize that “studies have shown improvements in captive bottlenose dolphin mortality rates over time” and at the same time assert that “dolphins do not live significantly longer than their wild counterparts.” Which is absolutely nonsense, as a lower mortality ration implies a longer life. The most recent scientific evidence makes clear that dolphins have a lower mortality rate and, as a consequence, live longer under human care.[20]^{,[21],[22],[23],[24]}

Finally, the authors state “Ultimately, however, the mortality rates of captive cetaceans – whether improved, or comparable to some weakened wild populations – can never be a justification for keeping them in captivity. A long life in a tiny, barren enclosure is not a good life.” Which is clearly the acknowledgement that dolphins do live longer under human care, despite they do not like to recognize it. What the authors do not understand is that the fact that dolphins live longer under human care is not a justification to keep them in dolphinaria. This fact is the final prove that cetaceans do not suffer under human care, because they would not be able to overlive their wild counterparts if the tragic story of a life of stress and suffering would be true. Hence, this is the evidence that the cetaceans do not suffer under human care.

To conclude, within the report it can be found a clear prove that the “researchers” that were inspecting the dolphinaria did not have the skills to evaluate the acgtual situation. The report states that “At Loro Parque in Tenerife, staff who do ’water work’ with dolphins, ie, enter the water with them, carry a cylinder of five minutes’ worth of breathable compressed air to be used in emergencies.”. This statement is blatantly false, the dolphin trainers at Loro Parque have never carried such security equipment. The only staff who carries this safety equipment is the killer whale trainers, not because they do any waterwork, but just in case of an accidental fall in one of the pools. If the observers sent to the parks were unable to distinguish between a dolphin and a killer whale, it is clear that the conclusions of the report are absolutely useless.

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Annex I

List of scientific publications produced from research with cetaceans under human care

Lima, A., Sébilleau, M., Boye, M., Durand, C., Hausberger, M., & Lemasson, A. (2018). Captive bottlenose dolphins do discriminate human-made sounds both underwater and in the air. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(JAN). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00055

Abramson, J. Z., Hernández-Lloreda, M. V., García, L., Colmenares, F., Aboitiz, F., & Call, J. (2018). Imitation of novel conspecific and human speech sounds in the killer whale ( Orcinus orca ). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 285(1871), 20172171. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2171

Clegg, I. L. K., & Delfour, F. (2018). Can We Assess Marine Mammal Welfare in Captivity and in the Wild? Considering the Example of Bottlenose Dolphins. Aquatic Mammals, 44(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.44.2.2018.181

Clegg, I. L. K., Rödel, H. G., Cellier, M., Vink, D., Michaud, I., Mercera, B., … Delfour, F. (2017). Schedule of human-controlled periods structures bottlenose dolphin (tursiops truncatus) behavior in their free-time. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 131(3), 214–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000059

Harvey, B. S., Dudzinski, K. M., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2017). Associations and the role of affiliative, agonistic, and socio-sexual behaviors among common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Behavioural Processes, 135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.12.013

Clegg, I. L. K., Van Elk, C. E., & Delfour, F. (2017). Applying welfare science to bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Animal Welfare, 26(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.26.2.165

Abramson, J. Z., Hernández-Lloreda, M. V., Esteban, J. A., Colmenares, F., Aboitiz, F., & Call, J. (2017). Contextual imitation of intransitive body actions in a Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas): A “do as other does” study. PLoS ONE, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178906

Dolphin, B., Clegg, I. L. K., Rödel, H. G., Cellier, M., Vink, D., Michaud, I., … Böye, M. (2017). Schedule of Human-Controlled Periods Structures Bottlenose Dolphin. Journal of Comparative Psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983).

Serres, A., & Delfour, F. (2017). Environmental changes and anthropogenic factors modulate social play in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Zoo Biology, 36(2), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21355

Clegg, I. L. K., Rödel, H. G., & Delfour, F. (2017). Bottlenose dolphins engaging in more social affiliative behaviour judge ambiguous cues more optimistically. Behavioural Brain Research, 322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.026

Lima, A., Lemasson, A., Boye, M., & Hausberger, M. (2017). Vocal activities reflect the temporal distribution of bottlenose dolphin social and non-social activity in a zoological park. Zoo Biology, 36(6), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21387

Levengood, A. L., & Dudzinski, K. M. (2016). Is blood thicker than water? The role of kin and non-kin in non-mother-calf associations of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Behavioural Processes, 124, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.005

Melero, M., Giménez-Lirola, L. G., Rubio-Guerri, C., Crespo-Picazo, J. L., Sierra, E. E., García-Párraga, D., … Sánchez-Vizcaíno, J. M. (2016). Fluorescent microbead-based immunoassay for anti-Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae antibody detection in cetaceans. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 117(3), 237–243. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02948

Wright, A., Scadeng, M., Stec, D., Dubowitz, R., Ridgway, S., & Leger, J. St. (2016). Neuroanatomy of the killer whale (Orcinus orca): a magnetic resonance imaging investigation of structure with insights on function and evolution. Brain Structure and Function, 1263(May), 1256–1263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-016-1225-x

Wisniewska, D. M., Teilmann, J., Hermannsen, L., Johnson, M., Miller, L. A., Siebert, U., & Madsen, P. T. (2016). Quantitative measures of anthropogenic noise on harbor porpoises: Testing the reliability of acoustic tag recordings. In Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology (Vol. 875, pp. 1237–1242). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2981-8_155

Frasier, K. E., Elizabeth Henderson, E., Bassett, H. R., & Roch, M. a. (2016). Automated identification and clustering of subunits within delphinid vocalizations. Marine Mammal Science, 32(3), 911–930. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12303

Neto, M. P., Silveira, M., & dos Santos, M. E. (2016). Training bottlenose dolphins to overcome avoidance of environmental enrichment objects in order to stimulate play activities. Zoo Biology, 35(3), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21282

Lucke, K., Popper, A. N., Hawkins, A. D., Akamatsu, T., André, M., Branstetter, B. K., … Aran Mooney, T. (2016). Auditory sensitivity in aquatic animals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 139(6), 3097–3101. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4952711

Branstetter, B. K., DeLong, C. M., Dziedzic, B., Black, A., & Bakhtiari, K. (2016). Recognition of Frequency Modulated Whistle-Like Sounds by a Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and Humans with Transformations in Amplitude, Duration and Frequency. PLOS ONE, 11(2), e0147512. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147512

Smith, H., Frère, C., Kobryn, H., & Bejder, L. (2016). Dolphin sociality, distribution and calving as important behavioural patterns informing management. Animal Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12263

Eskelinen, H. C., Winship, K. A., Jones, B. L., Ames, A. E. M., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2016). Acoustic behavior associated with cooperative task success in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Animal Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-0978-1

Ravignani, A., Fitch, W. T., Hanke, F. D., Heinrich, T., Hurgitsch, B., Kotz, S. a, … De Boer, B. (2016). What pinnipeds have to say about human speech, music, and the evolution of rhythm. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10(July), 274. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNINS.2016.00274

King, S. L., Guarino, E., Donegan, K., Hecksher, J., & Jaakkola, K. (2016). Further insights into postpartum signature whistle use in bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ). Marine Mammal Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12317

Izidoro, F. B., & Le Pendu, Y. (2016). Rostrum Contact Behaviors by the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) in Ilhéus, Brazil. Aquatic Mammals, 42(2), 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.42.2.2016.203

King, S. L., Guarino, E., Keaton, L., Erb, L., & Jaakkola, K. (2016). Maternal signature whistle use aids mother-calf reunions in a bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus. Behavioural Processes, 126, 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.03.005

Kremers, D., Célérier, A., Schaal, B., Campagna, S., Trabalon, M., Böye, M., … Lemasson, A. (2016). Sensory Perception in Cetaceans: Part II—Promising Experimental Approaches to Study Chemoreception in Dolphins. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 4(May), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2016.00050

Neto, M. P., Silveira, M., & dos Santos, M. E. (2016). Training bottlenose dolphins to overcome avoidance of environmental enrichment objects in order to stimulate play activities. Zoo Biology, 35(3), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21282

García-Párraga, D., Gilabert, J. A., García-Peña, F. J., Álvaro, T., Ros-Rodríguez, J. M., Valls, M., & Encinas, T. (2016). Long-lasting concentrations of cefovecin after subcutaneous and intramuscular administration to Patagonian sea lions (Otaria flavescens). The Veterinary Journal, 208(July 2016), 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.09.015

King, S. L., Guarino, E., Keaton, L., Erb, L., & Jaakkola, K. (2016). Maternal signature whistle use aids mother-calf reunions in a bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus. Behavioural Processes, 126, 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.03.005

Beisner, B. A., Hannibal, D. L., Finn, K. R., Fushing, H., & McCowan, B. (2016). Social power, conflict policing, and the role of subordination signals in rhesus macaque society. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22945

Lucke, K., Finneran, J. J., Almunia, J., & Houser, D. S. (2016). Variability in Click-Evoked Potentials in Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) and Determination of a Hearing Impairment in a Rehabilitated Killer Whale. Aquatic Mammals, 42(2), 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.42.2.2016.184

Papale, E., Perez-Gil, M., Castrillon, J., Perez-Gil, E., Ruiz, L., Servidio, A., … Martín, V. (2016). Context specificity of Atlantic spotted dolphin acoustic signals in the Canary Islands. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, (May), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2016.1171256

Kremers, D., Célérier, A., Schaal, B., Campagna, S., Trabalon, M., Böye, M., … Lemasson, A. (2016). Sensory Perception in Cetaceans: Part I—Current Knowledge about Dolphin Senses As a Representative Species. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2016.00049

Pepperberg, I. M., & Nakayama, K. (2016). Robust representation of shape in a Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Cognition, 153, 146–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.04.014

Levengood, A. L., & Dudzinski, K. M. (2016). Is blood thicker than water? The role of kin and non-kin in non-mother-calf associations of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Behavioural Processes, 124, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.005

Giménez, J., Ramírez, F., Almunia, J., G. Forero, M., & de Stephanis, R. (2016). From the pool to the sea: Applicable isotope turnover rates and diet to skin discrimination factors for bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 475, 54–61.

Lucke, K., Popper, A. N., Hawkins, A. D., Akamatsu, T., André, M., Branstetter, B. K., … Aran Mooney, T. (2016). Auditory sensitivity in aquatic animals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 139(6), 3097–3101. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4952711

Luís, A. R., Couchinho, M. N., & dos Santos, M. E. (2016). A Quantitative Analysis of Pulsed Signals Emitted by Wild Bottlenose Dolphins. Plos One, 11(7), e0157781. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157781

Hacker, C. E., & Miller, L. J. (2016). Zoo visitor perceptions, attitudes, and conservation intent after viewing African elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Zoo Biology, 7(January), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21303

Stavros, K. (2016). Scientific Diving As A Toll in Marine Sciences. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1101.5289

Esteban, R., Verborgh, P., Gauffier, P., Giménez, J., Martín, V., Pérez-Gil, M., … de Stephanis, R. (2016). Using a multi-disciplinary approach to identify a critically endangered killer whale management unit. Ecological Indicators, 66(July), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.043

Ferrer-i-Cancho, R., Lusseau, D., & McCowan, B. (2016). Parallels of human language in the behavior of bottlenose dolphins. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/abs/1605.01661

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Annex I

List of scientific publications produced from research with cetaceans under human care

Lima, A., Sébilleau, M., Boye, M., Durand, C., Hausberger, M., & Lemasson, A. (2018). Captive bottlenose dolphins do discriminate human-made sounds both underwater and in the air. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(JAN). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00055

Clegg, I. L. K., & Delfour, F. (2018). Can We Assess Marine Mammal Welfare in Captivity and in the Wild? Considering the Example of Bottlenose Dolphins. Aquatic Mammals, 44(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.44.2.2018.181

Harvey, B. S., Dudzinski, K. M., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2017). Associations and the role of affiliative, agonistic, and socio-sexual behaviors among common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Behavioural Processes, 135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.12.013

Clegg, I. L. K., Van Elk, C. E., & Delfour, F. (2017). Applying welfare science to bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Animal Welfare, 26(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.26.2.165

Abramson, J. Z., Hernández-Lloreda, M. V., Esteban, J. A., Colmenares, F., Aboitiz, F., & Call, J. (2017). Contextual imitation of intransitive body actions in a Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas): A “do as other does” study. PLoS ONE, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178906

Dolphin, B., Clegg, I. L. K., Rödel, H. G., Cellier, M., Vink, D., Michaud, I., … Böye, M. (2017). Schedule of Human-Controlled Periods Structures Bottlenose Dolphin. Journal of Comparative Psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983).

Serres, A., & Delfour, F. (2017). Environmental changes and anthropogenic factors modulate social play in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Zoo Biology, 36(2), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21355

Clegg, I. L. K., Rödel, H. G., & Delfour, F. (2017). Bottlenose dolphins engaging in more social affiliative behaviour judge ambiguous cues more optimistically. Behavioural Brain Research, 322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.026

Lima, A., Lemasson, A., Boye, M., & Hausberger, M. (2017). Vocal activities reflect the temporal distribution of bottlenose dolphin social and non-social activity in a zoological park. Zoo Biology, 36(6), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21387

Levengood, A. L., & Dudzinski, K. M. (2016). Is blood thicker than water? The role of kin and non-kin in non-mother-calf associations of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Behavioural Processes, 124, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.005

Frasier, K. E., Elizabeth Henderson, E., Bassett, H. R., & Roch, M. a. (2016). Automated identification and clustering of subunits within delphinid vocalizations. Marine Mammal Science, 32(3), 911–930. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12303

Neto, M. P., Silveira, M., & dos Santos, M. E. (2016). Training bottlenose dolphins to overcome avoidance of environmental enrichment objects in order to stimulate play activities. Zoo Biology, 35(3), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21282

Lucke, K., Popper, A. N., Hawkins, A. D., Akamatsu, T., André, M., Branstetter, B. K., … Aran Mooney, T. (2016). Auditory sensitivity in aquatic animals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 139(6), 3097–3101. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4952711

Smith, H., Frère, C., Kobryn, H., & Bejder, L. (2016). Dolphin sociality, distribution and calving as important behavioural patterns informing management. Animal Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12263

Eskelinen, H. C., Winship, K. A., Jones, B. L., Ames, A. E. M., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2016). Acoustic behavior associated with cooperative task success in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Animal Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-0978-1

Ravignani, A., Fitch, W. T., Hanke, F. D., Heinrich, T., Hurgitsch, B., Kotz, S. a, … De Boer, B. (2016). What pinnipeds have to say about human speech, music, and the evolution of rhythm. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10(July), 274. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNINS.2016.00274

King, S. L., Guarino, E., Donegan, K., Hecksher, J., & Jaakkola, K. (2016). Further insights into postpartum signature whistle use in bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ). Marine Mammal Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12317

Izidoro, F. B., & Le Pendu, Y. (2016). Rostrum Contact Behaviors by the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) in Ilhéus, Brazil. Aquatic Mammals, 42(2), 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.42.2.2016.203

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